Critical Issues Forum 2008

Nuclear Energy: Benefits and Risks

Benchmark 1

The High School of Art & Design

Contributors:

Katie Ernst

James Estrada

Robert Cipriano

Panagiotis Lafatzis

Chavarr Warren

Teacher: Angela Gin

Objective 1

Energy and its Uses

What does it take to keep our vehicles running, machines working, or our homes lit up and heated? It takes energy to keep today’s society up and running. Energy comes in various forms and is derived from some of the world’s precious resources that serve as major energy sources. Each substance has different properties and needs to be dealt with accordingly. Energy sources used in the world today include petroleum (oil), natural gas, coal, hydroelectric, nuclear, bio-fuels, geothermal, solar power and wind power. Some of these resources are considered non-renewable, which means that unlike wind, solar, or hydroelectric energy, they can be used up because their availability is not infinite. Non-renewable resources take millions of years to form. They are highly influenced by high carbon content, which is the result of being buried under ground for a long period of time. In turn, they release the carbon back into the atmosphere. The energy sources of the world are used differently and the availability of theses sources vary.

Energy as a whole, which can be measured in joules, is classified as stored energy and working energy. For example, potential energy is stored energy, and kinetic energy is energy in the form of motion. Commonly known energies such as chemical, gravitational, and magnetic are classified as forms of potential energy in contrast to sound energy, light energy and electrical energy which are classified as kinetic. An important form of energy is heat which is basically a transfer of energy from a part of a substance onto another. Heat, which is affiliated with the movement of molecules, has capabilities of being transmitted by means of conduction, convection and radiation through solid media, fluid media and empty space. Other important forms of energy include nuclear energy, which is released by means of fission or fusion of nuclei of atoms, thermal energy in which particles make up a mass of energy internally, and electrical energy, which is commonly known for powering appliances, lights and many more uses. These forms of energy are derived from different resources found on this planet and are needed to make things work.

Sources of Energy

The 2003 graph provided by the Energy Information Administration, as seen below, shows how petroleum (crude oil) is used and produced as the most used energy source. Natural gas is the second most used and produced resource followed by coal, hydroelectric, nuclear, and other energy sources including geothermal, solar power, bio-fuels, and wind power. The different uses and availability of theses energy resources vary.

Petroleum is a naturally occurring substance formed by various organic elements located beneath the surface of the earth in reservoirs. When petroleum is recovered, it is refined. Refined petroleum is used for various fuels and other derivatives. Fuels from petroleum include ethane, diesel fuel, fuel oil, gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, liquid petroleum gas and natural gas. Other derivatives of oil include alkenes (manufactured into plastics), lubricants, wax, sulfuric acid, tar, asphalt, waxes, and aromatic petrochemicals. The general uses of oil include transportation (vehicles), power plants, and for heating.[1] Some advantages of oil are that there is a good distribution system for its current use levels, it is easily obtainable and it is better as a space heating source. However, it is less available during winter, contributes to global warming, and the price fluctuates with supply and demand.[2] Although petroleum is the resource relied upon the most globally for energy, it can be harmful to the environment. There are the occasional oil spills, and drilling can harm the land and the animals that live there. When gasoline and furl is burned, carbon dioxide and pollutants are released.

Currently, Saudi Arabia is the world's top oil producer. The top 15 oil producing nations (Russia, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iraq, Brazil, Kazakhstan, Iran, Kuwait, Algeria, Qatar, Libya, Nigeria, UAE, Angola and Azerbaijan) are expected to produce 84% of the world’s oil over a span of the next ten years and this growth capacity relies on the top five oil producing nations: Russia, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iraq and Brazil. The United States has the largest oil demand at about a quarter of the world’s total oil.

Natural gas is another fossil fuel composed mainly of methane and other significant compounds. It is found dissolved in coal beds, dissolved oil fields or just found as natural gas. It is collected and sent to a gas processing plant to be isolated and cleaned, just like coal. In this case, what is removed from methane gas can still be used; gases such as butane and propane are used for grills and other appliances. Natural gas can be used as gasoline or diesel fuels to run automobiles and trucks. Natural gas is also used for the generation of electricity through gas and steam turbines. In homes, it is responsible for fueling ovens and stovetops and heat through water heaters and boilers. The element hydrogen is derived from natural oil and natural gas is used in manufacturing processes of products such as fabrics, glass, steel, plastics, and paint. [3]

Methane is a green house gas that harms the atmosphere after leaking from various sources. Efforts have been made by the Natural Gas Industry to reduce the harmful impact such as scenting the gas with sulfur so a leak is apparent, since methane is scentless and tasteless. Natural gas is a non-renewable resource and therefore can run out. Natural gas is the cleanest of the fossil fuels and is simpler than oil and coal. It accounts for 24% of the U.S.’s total energy consumption.[4]

Many countries contain natural gas and they vary by cubic feet of gas available. About 60% of the world’s total natural gas reserves are located in Russia, Iran and Qatar. In 2006, Russia stood as the world's largest producer of natural gas, accounting for 21%, at 1.67 million m³/d (59.2 Bcf/d) of the total. The United States is the second largest gas producing country which consumes the natural gas produced that it produces. Thirdly, Canada accounts for 6% of total production.[5]

Production of Natural Gas Worldwide (Cubic Feet)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas

Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the earth’s crust. Coal is a fossil fuel which usually forms in swamp ecosystems. It is very inexpensive and easy to recover, especially in Russia and the Unites States.[6] Coal is found by two methods; surface mining and underground mining. Surface mining is less expensive and is the technique that produces most of the coal in the U.S. Surface mining is used when the coal is less than two hundred feet underground and is recovered through digging with machines. Underground mining is used for coal buried deeper. Miners do most of the work sometimes traveling over a thousand feet below the surface to find the precious mineral.

Coal is a solid fuel used to generate electricity and heat through burning known as combustion. It is readily combustible in its black rock form. Coal generates electricity when burned in a furnace with a boiler with transforms the coal to steam and in result, turbines are spun which turn generators to create electricity. This abundant coal is distributed throughout the world and China produces and consumes much of the world’s coal. The U.S., China, Russia, Japan and India together make up 50% of the world’s energy supply through coal. There is an abundance of coal in the world due to reserves in the following nations: U.S.A., Russia, China, Australia, South Africa, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Poland, Brazil, Germany, Columbia, Canada, Czech Republic, Indonesia, Turkey, Greece, Pakistan, Bulgaria, Thailand, North Korea, New Zealand, Spain, Zimbabwe, Romania, and Venezuela.

When a large quantity of coal is used, it can have harmful effects on the environment, such as the production of greenhouse gases, acid rain, and pollution which necessitates expensive air pollution controls. Also, coal requires an extensive transportation system. There are alternatives to coal use, but coal is cheap and effective. There is no solution as to what countries will do to lessen coal’s harmful influence.[7]

Nuclear energy refers to the splitting or joining of the nuclei of atoms. These nuclear reactions called fusions and fissions generate electricity. The United States produces the most nuclear energy in the world, accounting for 19% of its total energy production. In Europe, nuclear energy accounts for 30% of the total electricity. In 2006, the total output of energy in France was 80% nuclear energy. A 2007 International Atomic Energy Agency report stated that there were 439 nuclear power reactors (generators which harness nuclear energy to produce energy) in the world. But an issue of nuclear power is its involvement in the militaries which affects the source as a whole.[8]

Nuclear energy has many advantages and disadvantages. For one, it is inexpensive. Also, it is easy to transport as a new fuel, and there are no greenhouse or acid rain effects. Disadvantages include higher capital costs because of emergency, containment, and radioactive waste storage systems. Using nuclear energy then raises the issue of proliferation. [9]

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:World_renewable_energy_2005a.png)

According to the “World Renewable Energy 2005” chart, hydroelectricity accounts for about 63% of total renewable sources and about 19% of the world’s total energy sources. Hydroelectricity produces no wastes including no harmful carbon dioxide emissions. It is generated from large generators in man-made dams. Countries that carry hydroelectricity include Canada, Brazil, USA, Russia, Norway, India, Japan, Sweden, and France. Renewable energy such as geothermal, solar power, wind power, bio-fuels, and other energy sources, are used to generate electricity and produce fuels. Hydro electricity is the most used renewable energy source, but there are others such as wind and solar power that are relied on as well. The Earth produces its own solar and wind energy daily, and they are some of the first energies that has been harnessed for use. These energies can be inconsistent in availability since it depends on the amount of sun or wind on any given day.

Along with renewable energies there are non-renewable energies; energy that can only be used once and cannot be replicated. These energies include fossil fuels, oil, coal, and natural gas and take thousands of years to produce. Therefore, their limited quantities deem them unreliable for the future to accommodate an increasing population and energy demands. While the supplies of non-renewable energy are depleting, scientists are studying cheaper, cleaner, and effective means of producing energy.

Objective 2

Nuclear energy is energy derived from the fission of an atom, normally Uranium. However, raw Uranium is a resource which must be processed through a series of steps in order to produce efficient fuel for use in the generation of electricity. [10] This series of steps is known as the nuclear fuel cycle. The process is long, complex, and requires the use of various types of machinery in order to take uranium from its raw form (known as "yellowcake") to usable, highly radioactive fuel, to "spent fuel", and then in certain cases, back in to usable fuel.

In order to provide power for an electric generator, nuclear reactors in nuclear power plants rely on the process of nuclear fission. Fission is "the process by which the nucleus of a heavy element, such as uranium, splits when bombarded by a free neutron in a nuclear reactor. The fission process for uranium yields two smaller atoms, one to three free neutrons, plus an amount of energy....Because more free neutrons are released from a uranium fission event than are needed to initiate the event. The reaction can become self sustaining- a chain reaction- under controlled conditions, thus producing a tremendous amount of energy." [11]

Nuclear Fission

(http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Images/fission.jpg)

The products of fission are highly radioactive atoms, or radioisotopes, which produce radiation (the emission of either alpha, beta, or gamma rays) by the process of radioactive decay. According to Wikipedia, radioactive decay is "the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus of a radioisotope (such as U-235) loses energy by emitting radiation in the form of particles or electromagnetic waves. This decay, or loss of energy, results in an atom of one type, called the parent nuclide transforming to an atom of a different type, called the daughter nuclide. For example: a U-235 atom (the "parent") emits radiation and transforms to a Thorium-231 atom (the daughter).

All radioisotopes have what is called a half-life, which is the amount of time in which a radionuclide loses half of its radioactivity. A radioisotope will decay until it is nearly diminished, and ultimately, non-radioactive. Until this occurs, the radiation produced as a result of radioactive decay must be heavily controlled, as it is harmful to both human health, and the environment.

The Nuclear Fuel Cycle

(http://uic.com.au/nfc.htm)

Mining and Milling

Uranium mining retrieves uranium ore from the earth by open cut or underground mining techniques. Canada is the world's largest exporter of uranium ore, and Australia has the world's largest uranium reserves. The mined uranium is then sent to a mill where it will be "crushed and ground to a fine slurry which is leached in sulfuric acid to allow the separation of uranium from the waste rock. It is then recovered from solution and precipitated as uranium oxide (U₃0₈) concentrate." Uranium oxide is often called "yellowcake", and is the final product of the first step of the nuclear fuel cycle.[12]

Conversion

U₃0₈ needs to be converted in to the gas uranium hexafluoride (UF6), which is the form of uranium required by most uranium enrichment facilities, at a uranium conversion plant. [13]

Enrichment

The process of enriching uranium raises the proportion of the U-235 isotope from the natural level of 0.7% to about 3.5% or slightly more.(2) 85% of the U-238 is removed by separating gaseous uranium hexafluoride into two streams: One stream is enriched to the level at which it will be usable as fuel, and then passed to the next stage of the fuel cycle. The other stream contains very little U-235 and is called 'tails'. (It is mostly U-238) So little U-235 remains in the tails (usually less than 0.25%) that it is of no further use for energy. [14]. A small number of reactors, notably the Canadian CANDU and early British gas-cooled reactors, do not require uranium to be enriched. [15]

Fabrication

Enriched UF6 is transported to a fuel fabrication plant and is converted to uranium dioxide (UO2) powder, which is then pressed in to pellet form. These small pellets are stacked in to tubes of zirconium alloy called fuel rods.[16] The fuel rods are then sealed to contain the pellets, and are assembled to form the nuclear fuel core of the reactor. The reactor is now fueled and ready to convert the uranium pellets in to usable energy.[17]

Spent Fuel Storage

Once the reactor has operated its cycle, it is shut down and refueled. The spent fuel (fuel that was used) is highly radioactive, and gives of large amounts of heat released as a result of radioactive decay. [18] Spent fuel is stored in dry facilities, known as Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installations, either at the reactor site, or in a facility away from the reactor. It may also be stored in a pool of water which acts as a barrier against radiation, and disperses the heat from the spent fuel. Both methods are safe, and can be used for long periods, but are intended as an interim step before spent fuel can be reprocessed or sent to final disposal. The longer it is stored, the easier it is to handle, due to radioactive decay.[19]

Reprocessing

Spent fuel still contains 96% of its original Uranium. Fissionable U-235 has been reduced to less than 1%. Only 3% is waste, and 1% is plutonium. The purpose of reprocessing is to separate Uranium and Plutonium from waste products. This is achieved by dissolving the fuel rods in acid in order to separate the materials. Recovered uranium can be returned to the conversion plant, and continue in the fuel cycle. [20]

Vitrification

After reprocessing the liquid high-level waste can be calcined (heated strongly) to produce a dry powder which is incorporated into borosilicate (Pyrex) glass to immobilize the waste. The glass is then poured into stainless steel canisters, each holding 400 kg of glass. A year's waste from a 1000 MWe reactor is contained in 5 tones of such glass, or about 12 canisters 1.3 meters high and 0.4 meters in diameter. These can be readily transported and stored, with appropriate shielding.

Final disposal

Vitrified fuel has yet to be properly disposed of, or rather, permanently stored. Current concern in the nuclear power field is the safe disposal and isolation of either spent fuel from reactors or, if reprocessing occurs, wastes from reprocessing plants. These materials must be isolated from the biosphere until the radioactivity contained in them has diminished to a safe level. Under the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982, the Department of Energy has responsibility for the development of the waste disposal system for spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste. Current plans call for the ultimate disposal of the wastes in solid form in licensed deep, stable geologic structures. The proposed site for such storage is the Yucca Mountain Repository, in Nevada. As of now, the earliest feasible opening date is in 2021[21] Most countries intend to introduce final disposal sometime after about 2010, when the quantities to be disposed of will be sufficient to make it economically justifiable. [22]

Locations at Which Different Steps of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Occur Worldwide

(http://uic.com.au/nfc.htm)

Nuclear Reactors

A nuclear reactor is a machine in which a fission reaction takes place. A reactor must be heavily controlled and stable enough to contain the chain reaction of nuclear fission, and prevent any radiation from escaping. The manner in which a nuclear reactor does this depends on what kind of reactor it is. Reactors differ in their particular designs, and the different methods and materials they use to perform the same tasks.

Components of a Reactor

Fuel- Uranium has two isotopes, U-235 and U-238. U-235 is the only naturally occurring fissile material. Enrichment is necessary to create as much of this material as possible.

Moderator- Slows the fast neutrons created during fission to the thermal energy range, in order to increase further fission

Coolant- Absorbs and removes the heat produced by nuclear fission. Maintains the temperature of the fuel within an acceptable range. Transfers heat to turbines.

Control Rods- made of materials that absorb neutrons (boron, silver, indium, cadmium, hafnium) in order to stop the fission process when required.

Different Kinds of Reactors

Boiling Water Reactor

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:BoilingWaterReactor.gif)

In a boiling water reactor, heat produced by the fission reaction inside the fuel rods causes the water surrounding them to boil, and become steam. The steam powers a turbine, and this turbine powers a generator. The steam is then cooled, and condensed back in to water. The water is force-circulated back in to the reactor core, and cools it. It boils once again, becomes steam, and continues this cycle.[23]

Advantages

· The reactor vessel and associated components operate at a substantially lower pressure (about 75 times atmospheric pressure) compared to a PWR (about 158 times atmospheric pressure).

· Pressure vessel is subject to significantly less irradiation compared to a PWR, and so does not become as brittle with age.

· Operates at a lower nuclear fuel temperature.

· Fewer components due to no steam generators and no pressurizer vessel

· Lower risk of a rupture causing loss of coolant compared to a PWR, and lower risk of a severe accident should such a rupture occur. This is due to fewer pipes, fewer large diameter pipes, fewer welds and no steam generator tubes.

· Measuring the water level in the pressure vessel is the same for both normal and emergency operations, which results in easy and intuitive assessment of emergency conditions.

· Can operate at lower core power density levels using natural circulation without forced flow.

Disadvantages

· Complex calculations for managing consumption of nuclear fuel during operation due to "two phase fluid flow" in the upper part of the core. This requires more instrumentation in the reactor core. The innovation of computers, however, makes this less of an issue.

· Much larger pressure vessel than for a PWR of similar power, with correspondingly higher cost. (However, the overall cost is reduced because a modern BWR has no main steam generators and associated piping.)

· Contamination of the turbine by short-lived activation products. This means that shielding and access control around the steam turbine are required during normal operations due to the radiation levels arising from the steam entering directly from the reactor core.

· Control rods are inserted from below for current BWR designs. There are two available hydraulic power sources that can drive the control rods into the core for a BWR under emergency conditions. There is a dedicated high pressure hydraulic accumulator and also the pressure inside of the reactor pressure vessel available to each control rod. Either the dedicated accumulator (one per rod) or reactor pressure is capable of fully inserting each rod. Most other reactor types use top entry control rods that are held up in the withdrawn position by electromagnets, causing them to fall into the reactor by gravity if power is lost.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_Water_Reactor)

Pressurized Water Reactor

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:PressurizedWaterReactor.gif)

In a pressurized water reactor, the water passing through the reactor core is kept under pressure so that it remains in liquid form. Steam to drive the turbine is generated in a separate piece of equipment called a steam generator. A steam generator is a giant cylinder with thousands of tubes in it through which the hot radioactive water can flow. Outside the tubes in the steam generator, nonradioactive water (or clean water) boils and eventually turns to steam. The steam powers a turbine, which powers an electricity producing generator. The steam condenses, and flows back in to the steam generator.

The radioactive water flows back to the reactor core, where it is reheated, and to flows back to the steam generator. Roughly seventy percent of the reactors operating in the U.S. are PWR. [24]

Advantages

· PWR reactors are very stable due to their tendency to produce less power as temperatures increase; this makes the reactor easier to operate from a stability standpoint.

· Because PWR reactors use enriched uranium as fuel they can use ordinary water as a moderator rather than the much more expensive heavy water as used in a pressurized heavy water reactor.

· PWR turbine cycle loop is separate from the primary loop, so the water in the secondary loop is not contaminated by radioactive materials.

Disadvantages

· The coolant water must be highly pressurized to remain liquid at high temperatures. This requires high strength piping and a heavy pressure vessel and hence increases construction costs. The higher pressure can increase the consequences of a loss of coolant accident.

· Most pressurized water reactors cannot be refueled while operating. This decreases the availability of the reactor- it has to go offline for comparably long periods of time (some weeks).

· The high temperature water coolant with boric acid dissolved in it is corrosive to carbon steel (but not stainless steel), this can cause radioactive corrosion products to circulate in the primary coolant loop. This not only limits the lifetime of the reactor, but the systems that filter out the corrosion products and adjust the boric acid concentration add significantly to the overall cost of the reactor and radiation exposure.

· Water absorbs neutrons making it necessary to enrich the uranium fuel, which increases the costs of fuel production. If heavy water is used it is possible to operate the reactor with natural uranium, but the production of heavy water requires large amounts of energy and is hence expensive.

· Because water acts as a neutron moderator it is not possible to build a fast neutron reactor with a PWR design. A reduced moderation water reactor may however achieve breeding ratio greater than unity, though these have disadvantages of their own.

· Because the reactor produces energy more slowly at higher temperatures, a sudden cooling of the reactor coolant could increase power production until safety systems shut down the reactor

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor)

PHWR-CANDU Reactors

Pressurized heavy water reactors AKA CANDU (Canadian Deuterium uranium) Use heavy water (D2O) as a coolant and a moderator.

Advantages

Ÿ Using heavy water allows natural uranium to be used as fuel , thereby eliminating the need for enrichment.

Ÿ Refueling can take place during operation. (not the case in PWRs or BWRs.)

Disadvantages

Ÿ D2O production requires a separate plant.[25]

Gas Cooled Reactors

Gas cooled reactors include MAGNOX (UK), which uses natural uranium as fuel, and Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactors, which use enriched uranium. Both use CO2 as the coolant, and graphite as the moderator.[26]

Map of Reactor Sites (United States)

(http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/map-power-reactors.html)

Civilian Uses of Nuclear Energy

The energy produced by nuclear reactors can serve many purposes, including the generation of electricity. Nuclear power plants that generate electricity are considered “clean” because they do not emit pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, or nitrogen oxides. In fact, they produce no pollution. When two specific forms of uranium and a type of plutonium (“heavy” elements) interact, they cause a chain reaction that can be harnessed to generate electricity. Heat generated by the reaction boils water and makes enough steam to drive turbine generators. The fuel for it is mostly uranium. [27] A major advantage is that fuel for nuclear power is unlimited, seeing as there is more than enough uranium in the earth’s crust. [28]

Nuclear energy provides about 16% of the world’s electricity. Currently, there are 31 countries that depend on nuclear energy for three quarters of their electricity, such as France, Lithuania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Slovakia, and others. Nuclear energy can also be used to produce radioisotopes that can be used in health services, industry, and domestic appliances. Many smoke detectors contain a tiny amount of americium, which is derived from plutonium made in a nuclear reactor. [29]

Nuclear energy used in 2006

Nuclear (2006)

Total Operable Reactors	U.S. - 104; World – 443
Nuclear % of Electricity Generation	19.4
Nuclear % of Electric Capacity	10.2
Largest U.S. Nuclear Plant	Palo Verde - 3,733 megawatts (3 units)
Fuel Cost: nuclear vs. fossil steam	0.49 cents/kwh vs. 2.32 cents/kwh
Number of States with Commercial Nuclear Plants	31
States with Most Commercial Nuclear Plants	Illinois - 6; Pennsylvania – 5

( http://www.eia.doe.gov/basics/energybasics101.html)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power)

Military Uses

Weapons-grade uranium and plutonium surplus to military requirements in the USA and Russia is being made available for use as civil fuel.
Weapons-grade uranium is highly enriched, to over 90% U-235 (the fissile isotope). Weapons-grade plutonium has over 93% Pu-239 and can be used, like reactor-grade plutonium, in fuel for electricity production.
Highly-enriched uranium from weapons stockpiles is displacing some 10,600 tons of U₃O₈ production from mines each year, and meets about 13% of world reactor requirements.
Highly-enriched uranium in US and Russian weapons and other military stockpiles amounts to about 2000 tones, equivalent to about twelve times annual world mine production.[30]

The military’s main use for nuclear energy is to generate nuclear weapons. The definition of a nuclear weapon is any weapon that gets its destructive power from the transformation of matter into energy. They include explosive devices, missiles, bombs, artillery shells, mines, and torpedoes, as well as atomic and hydrogen bonds.

Plutonium is the special explosive ingredient in nuclear weapons. One kilogram is equivalent to about 22 million kilowatt hours of heat energy. The ignition of one kilogram of plutonium it creates an explosion equal to 20,000 tons of chemical energy. Nuclear power reactors around the world produce about 20,000 kilograms of polonium each year. Unlike uranium, plutonium is not abundant. It must be made in a reactor, one atomic nucleus at a time; 238-U is smothered with neutrons, producing the isotope 289-U “which beta decays, emitting an electron to become the radioactive 239-Np (neptunium). The neptunium isotope again beta decays to 239 Pu, the desired fissile material.”[31] A nuclear reactor with a controlled but self-sustaining 235-U fission chain reaction is the only practical source for an abundance of neutrons needed to make plutonium at a decent speed.[32]

Countries with Nuclear Weapons Capability

Acknowledged: Britain, China, France, India, Pakistan, Russia, United States

Unacknowledged: Israel

Seeking: North Korea¹, Iran²

Abandoned: South Africa—Constructed but then voluntarily dismantled six uranium bombs. Belarus, Kazakhstan, Ukraine—When Soviet Union broke up, these former states possessed nuclear warheads that they have since given up. [33]

-56 countries operate civilian research reactors

-30 countries have 439 commercial nuclear power reactors

-Over 30 power reactors are under construction

-8 are firmly planned

Countries with Reactors 2006-2008:

Argentina, Armenia, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, China: Taiwan, the Czech Republic, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Japan, Kazakhstan, North and South Korea, Lithuania, Mexico, the Netherlands, Pakistan, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, the Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States and Vietnam. [34]

Country	Warheads active/total*	Year of first test
Five nuclear weapons states from the NPT
United States	5,163 / 9,938^[4]	1945 ("Trinity")
Russia (former Soviet Union)	5,830 / 16,000^[5]	1949 ("RDS-1")
United Kingdom	200^[6]	1952 ("Hurricane")
France	<350^[7]	1960 ("Gerboise Bleue")
China	200^[8]	1964 ("596")
Other known nuclear powers
India	70-120^[9]	1974 ("Smiling Buddha")
Pakistan	30-80^[10]	1998 ("Chagai-I")
North Korea	1-10^[11]	2006 (The Beginning)^[12]
Undeclared nuclear weapons states
Israel	75-200^[13][14][15]	unknown or 1979 (See Vela Incident)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons)

Nuclear Proliferation

Nuclear proliferation is the rapid spread of nuclear weapons, nuclear technology, and information. This spread of information is usually to nations that have not yet signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. On July 1, 1968 an international treaty was signed to stop the spread of nuclear weapons. This is known as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which consists of 189 countries; five carry nuclear weapons: the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia, France, and China. Ireland proposed the treaty and Finland was the first to sign it. It promoted non-proliferation, disarmament, and the right to peacefully use nuclear technology. [35] Every country that has not signed is not recognized as a nuclear sate and therefore is not permitted access to this technology. Countries with and without nuclear weapons oppose proliferation because of fear of nuclear warfare, and the imminent devastation it would cause. It may de-stabilize international or regional relations, or corrupt the sovereignty of a nation. India, Pakistan, Israel, and now North Korea, among others, have not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, yet have still obtained, or are presumed to have access to nuclear weapons.[36]

World map with nuclear weapons development status represented by color as of March 2007

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation)

Five "nuclear weapons states" from the NPT

Other known nuclear powers

States formerly possessing nuclear weapons

States suspected of being in the process of developing nuclear weapons and/or nuclear programs

States which at one point had nuclear weapons and/or nuclear weapons research programs

States that possess nuclear weapons, but have not widely adopted them

There are two different types of nuclear proliferation: vertical and horizontal. Vertical proliferation is when nuclear weapon states research and develop new types of nuclear weapons, technology, materials, and a means of weapon delivery. Horizontal proliferation is when nuclear weapon states give out nuclear weapons, technology, or materials to nuclear or non-nuclear countries. Any proliferation of nuclear weapons is a threat to international peace and security. [37]

(http://www.abolishnukes.com/charts/inline/new_nuclear_proliferation_dangers.gif)

Nuclear Proliferation and Terrorism

There are many commercial energy reactors all over the world, which makes it hard to tell which countries are using nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, or if they are making weapons of mass destruction. In recent years, there has been a growth in the nuclear black market, which indicates possible uses of this energy for destructive purposes. Countries with advanced nuclear information are selling it off to any nations and possible terrorist groups that are willing to pay. Even countries that claim to be against proliferation are selling it on the black market to generate alliances, to feel powerful and serve as a threat to the world, or just to make a profit. For these reasons, it is of great concern that rogue nations, or terrorist organizations like Osama bin Laden’s al Qaeda group, may someday get hold of the nuclear bomb.

Another terrorist network, A.Q. Kahn, has sold nuclear material to both Iran and North Korea; two nations that have not signed the NPT. When President Bush heard that Kahn’s organization had been doing, his response was to strengthen anti-proliferation efforts. Bush ordered the U.N. Security Council was to criminalize any proliferation elements that could create nuclear weapons. The Bush Administration claims that if the main policies of the NPT and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) were strengthened, non-proliferation would be an attainable goal. Bush designed a seven-step program to deal with nuclear terrorism. These steps expanded on his Proliferation Security Initiative. The world has changed dramatically since the NPT was written; it would need a revolutionary change in its design in order for it to be effective. Bush’s designs to halt proliferation are extremely weak; none of the changes are major. The locking up of nuclear materials has been going on since the initial use of nuclear energy. Strengthening this policy alone will not be enough to stop the spread of materials. There will always be power-hungry nations looking for nuclear information, which poses a threat to the rest of the world. These nations will usually do anything to obtain this information, and there are plenty of other countries looking for alliances that are willing to sell information to them. Some people question Bush’s real desire for non-proliferation. If he were strongly against it, would he not have taken more drastic steps to change our policies? Does Bush really want to end proliferation, or is he saying he does because it is what people want to hear?

It is clear that when the NPT was written, different nuclear issues exist from those of today. The treaty was originally directed towards controlling states and governments, not rogue individuals and terrorist organizations that somehow acquired nuclear weapon information. Bush fails to acknowledge that these were different issues, and since that is the case, need to deal with them differently. Something that worked in the late 1960s is not going to be effective today. The first step in closing this gap would be to organize a global alliance against nuclear terrorism.

Recent U.S. efforts to control the worldwide supply of nuclear knowledge mainly rely on the Cooperative Threat Reduction program. The Cooperative Threat Reduction program (CTR) sprang up after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989, when the U.S. concentrated on preventing the spread of nuclear weapons and information in Russia, Ukraine, and other former Soviet satellites. Its main goal was to help former Soviet satellite countries to destroy chemical, nuclear, and biological weapons. Recently, new security systems have been installed, and more than 50 nuclear storage sties have been secured. Critics argue that this is not enough of a change and that more drastic measures need to be taken.

In 1957, Eisenhower’s Atom’s for Peace program was established by the IAEA as an independent U.N. body. The agency inspects nuclear power plants and research facilities to make sure they are not being used to create nuclear weapons. It also promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy, seeing as it is cleaner, affordable, reliable, and economically beneficial. [38]

The United States’ efforts to end proliferation are not effective. More nations need to join in the crusade. If more countries made small steps to stop proliferation, all of those small steps would add up and could possibly make a large impact on halting the spread of nuclear materials. A weakness in policy is not the sole reason for ineffectiveness but America’s unilateral approach as well. A multilateral approach would be best because it requires all of the countries against proliferation to join forces and all work for the same cause.

Bibliography

Abolish Nukes

http://www.abolishnukes.com/charts/inline/new_nuclear_proliferation_dangers.gif

Atomic Archive

http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Images/fission.jpg)

CC.utah.edu

http://www.cc.utah.edu/~ptt25660/hydro.html

Encarta MSN

http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761576221/petroleum.html

Energy Information Administration, 2003 data

Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review, August 2007.

Energy Information Administration