Critical Issues Forum

Nuclear Disarmament: Challenges, Opportunities, and Next Steps

Benchmark II

University Laboratory School

Celine Casamina

Brandon Marzan

World Quest Club

10^th Grade Class

Teacher: Suzanne Acord, Ph.D.

2008-2009

Table of Contents

Benchmark II Introduction………………………..…………….3

Objective 1……………………………………………………...3-8

Treaties................................................................................3-6

Laws and Measures...…………………………………….6-7

Organizations…………………………………….……….7-8

Objective 2……………………………….……………………8-11

Objective 3……………………….…………………………..11-15

Domestic Controls of Nuclear Weapons………………12-13

International Controls of Nuclear Weapons……….…13-15

Bibliography………………………..………………………..15-18

Benchmark II

This benchmark will discuss the controls of nuclear weapons throughout the world and measures that are being taken to control nuclear weapons. Such measures are put into effect by nations and international organizations. It will also focus on the treaties that help control nuclear weapons. Another issue that will be discussed is the challenges that the world faces in nuclear disarmament. That will lead to the differences of countries that possess nuclear weapons and ones that do not. Also, it will go into the challenges with monitoring nuclear weapons around the world.

Objective 1

This objective will focus on the control of nuclear weapons around the world. The objective will focus on three main sections of the control of nuclear weapons. Those three sections are treaties that help the control of nuclear weapons, organizations that help the control of nuclear weapons (focusing mainly on the International Atomic Energy Agency), and laws and measures to reduce nuclear weapons.

Treaties

Over time, treaties have been ratified by a variety of nations in order to control the spread and testing of nuclear weapons. There are about eleven current treaties in the world today (Loeber, 227). The Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963 was the first treaty created after the Cuban missile crisis. It banned testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, outer space and underwater. Nations that are a part of this treaty are the former Soviet Union, United States and United Kingdom (Choices, 18). The Threshold Test Ban Treaty and the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty also prohibit testing of nuclear weapons underground (Loeber, 228). Other treaties limit the amount of missiles, warheads and transportation vehicles. For example, the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (Loeber, 227), Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (Loeber, 228) and the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, limit the amount of ballistic missile systems and where they are launched (Loeber, 229).

Due to the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union both have the largest amount of nuclear weapons in stock. Because of this, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed on several treaties to help reduce the amount of nuclear weapons they have. The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty II is a bilateral treaty that the United States and the Soviet Union agreed upon to reduce the amount of warheads and eliminate the delivery vehicles, MIRVed and ICBMs (Loeber, 230). The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty I also reduces vehicles that deliver and equals the level of strategic arms (Loeber, 230). On May 24, 2002, President George W. Bush signed the Moscow Treaty which required Russia and the United States to further reduce warheads. Not only did the United States and the Soviet Union agree on treaties but together they developed the Cooperative U.S- Former Soviet Union Programs to help reduce accidents and thefts of nuclear weapons or materials to produce nuclear weapons. As for future treaties between the United States and Russia, each president from both nations plan to start a Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty III involving the reduction in nuclear warheads (Loeber, 231).

A major treaty relating to non-proliferation is the NPT also known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty. Effective in March 1970, (Loeber, 230) it first started when the United Nations General Assembly called for a treaty to prevent nuclear weapons from spreading to non-nuclear areas of the world (Department for Disarmament Affairs, United Nations). In order to prevent proliferation of nuclear weapons, China, France, United States and United Kingdom who have declared themselves a nuclear state, agreesd to not share any information or allow a non-nuclear state to gain control of any nuclear weapon (Choice, 18). In Article III, it provides details for nuclear states on how to safeguard their nuclear weapons with the help of the International Atomic Energy Agency. As for non-nuclear states who signed the treaty, they agree to not accept any nuclear weapons. Under Articles IV and VII, the treaty can’t be interpreted as affecting inalienable rights or affect the right to close regional treaties. Through Articles IX and X, the treaty is open to all states and each state has the right to withdraw from the treaty if the state believes the treaty has jeopardized the supreme interests of the country. Although, if a country believes the treaty has jeopardized their interests, it may propose an amendment according to Article VIII (Department for Disarmament Affairs, United Nations). A country who had withdrawn from the treaty was North Korea. The reason for North Korea‘s withdrawal from NPT was because they wanted to start a nuclear weapons program. The only countries who are not part of NPT are India, Pakistan, Israel, and North Korea (Choices, 18).

Above all the treaties, one treaty is the most effective but not the most easily accepted. An organization against nuclear weapons created the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty after the Cold War. The United States, four nuclear states, and sixty-six other states signed the treaty. Unfortunately, because the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty also known as CTBT banned nuclear weapons, it was not easily ratified in some nations. For example, the United States Senate rejected the ratification of CTBT because they wanted to keep nuclear weapons for security reasons especially for military use (Choices, 19). Supporters of CTBT believe it will be difficult for nations to acquire nuclear weapons because CTBT prohibits nuclear testing or any explosion of a nuclear weapon with no exception to the reason of peaceful purposes (Loeber, 230). Because of this, nations would not know if a given nuclear weapon is effective and it would also limit improvement of nuclear weapons. If every nation ratified CTBT, it is a possibility that proliferation of nuclear weapons could end all together (Choices, 19).

Laws and Measures

When the nuclear and atomic awareness became global, it immediately raised concerns to regulate the safety, laws, measures, and also created an irreversible knowledge about nuclear proliferation. In short, laws are rules that allow licensing and give restrictions or instructions about the storing of nuclear materials (RadWaste, 1).

Laws or restrictions can come in several different forms and one form is an act. Some acts require judge hearings like in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, others like the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 require the federal government to provide designated areas for the highly radioactive nuclear materials and waste (Nuclear Power Laws, 1).

Another example of a law/act is the 1982 Act on Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials. President Ronald Reagan passed the act to punish (prosecution, etc) individuals for possessing or transporting nuclear weapons or materials, which would prevent potential dangers (Number 30, 18-19). However, under the international humanitarian laws, there is no general international law that prevents a country, state, region, or province from possessing, threatening, or using nuclear weapons.

The International Humanitarian Law (IHL) is a law of war put in place to limit the effects of war on civilians. The ILH has various ways of shielding the public from the armed conflicts, especially nuclear-based, which include protecting property, prosperity, and peace in the war-prone areas. Some measures that states and countries take under the IHL include ratifying or requesting treaties that control the armed conflicts that endanger the basic rights of humans (International humanitarian law, 1).

Agencies such as the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) also act as regulators of nuclear energy and materials. The NEA is apart of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which is an organization that exists to help countries communicate and reach agreements through treaties and laws to regulate issues such as nuclear proliferation. Established on April 20^th of 1972, the NEA subsists to promote cooperation between the NEA country members to discuss safety protocols and measures that involve nuclear energy’s future aspects and nuclear development. The countries involved in the NEA are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxemburg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States (Number 30, 2).

Organizations

One international organization that deals with nuclear disarmament and nonproliferation is the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). IAEA was established in 1957 with goals “To expand contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world and to prevent the assistance it provides being used to further any military purpose (Germany - Federal Foreign Office, 1).” IAEA serves to improve nuclear safety and tries to stop fissionable materials from being diverted. The main pillars of IAEA are “Safety and Security; Science and Technology; and Safeguards and Verification.” Their main office is located at Vienna International Centre in Vienna, Austria, while other research centers and laboratories are located in USA, Canada, Japan, and Switzerland (International Atomic Energy Agency, 1).

Picture 1. “IAEA Flag” (Flags of the World). Picture 1 is an image of the flag of the International Atomic Energy Agency whose main pillars are “Safety and Security; Science and Technology; and Safeguards and Verification.”

Objective 2

This objective will focus on the challenges with disarmament in our modern world. It will show the differences of nations that possess nuclear weapons and those that do not, and why those differences exist.

Areas like Africa, mainly Southern Africa, Asia, South America, and the Middle East have declared that they believe in complete nuclear disarmament, many supporting the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty.

Ever since 1969, South Africa has wanted nuclear disarmament and began this by researching peaceful nuclear explosives (PNEs) (Nuclear Weapons Program, 1). South Africa became uncertain about its borders and later became isolated from other countries that possessed knowledge and nuclear weapons themselves.  Because of this isolation, South Africa had to develop complete nuclear plants to supply materials for their studies. With their materials, South Africa produced around six nuclear weapons (Nuclear Weapons Program, 1).  At first, South Africa was vague on the topic of if they had made nuclear weapons or not, but years later, a public statement was made that they had indeed produced from their own materials, at least five nuclear weapons (Nuclear Weapons Program, 2).

In 1987, President Botha announced that he was ruminating about signing the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) and would discuss the issue with fellow countries. Finally in 1991, President Botha decided to sign the NPT and after that, banned all development of nuclear weapons and/or explosives (Nuclear Weapons Program, 2).  Now, South Africa leaders urge others to do the same and to sign the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty as well.

In March 1993, President de Klerk made a public statement that South Africa had previously developed nuclear weapon capability, which was previously destroyed due to the signing of the NPT (Nuclear Weapons Program, 3).

In New York, over one-hundred-and-seventy countries attended the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty Review and Extension Conference held on May 11, 1995. After the third hearing of the extensive conference, a resolution was endorsed for a zone free weapon of mass destruction in the Middle East (Godsberg, 2).

Iraq, being an exception to the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, was able to keep highly sensitive and imperative technology and nuclear equipment from private parties in some states (Godsberg, 1).

North Korea announced in 2003 that it was withdrawing from the NPT after in 1994, signed an act under the NPT called an “Agreed Framework” with the United States, in which it complied with non-proliferation requirements.  Finally in 2006, North Korea became the eighth country to detonate a nuclear device (Godsberg, 2).

In 1940, the Japanese believed that making an atomic bomb was possible.  Many were interested in the study of nuclear science and at the same time, the Japanese Navy worked on a “super bomb” but overall, made little progress by the end of the war (Nuclear Weapons Program, 4).

On August 6, 1945, around 9:20 AM, pilot, Colonel Paul Warfield Tibbetts, Jr. flying the Enola Gay, dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima in Japan all to stop a war and to defend ourselves on United States soil (Dropping the Atomic Bomb, 1). 

Picture 2. “Tibbets and Enola Gay” (BBC). Picture 2 is an image of Colonel Tibbets in front of the Enola Gay. The Enola Gay was used to drop an atomic bomb over Hiroshima, Japan.

Picture 3. “Hiroshima Bombing” (BBC). Picture 3 is an image of a mushroom cloud from the August 6, 1945 bombing of Hiroshima.

Some scientists believe that Japan had a larger nuclear program than people thought.  Once, in May 1945, a German submarine on its way to Japan, surrendered to the United States forces and was found with 560 kilograms of Uranium oxide.  The submarine contained about 3.5 kilograms of isotope, which is about one fifth needed to create an atomic bomb.  On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered and the United States Army found five cyclotrons.  Cyclotrons can be used to separate fissionable material from uranium (Nuclear Weapons Program, 4).

While other countries have had nuclear bombs detonate due to tests or accidents, Japan is the only country that has experienced the attack of an atomic bomb.  Although in the constitution, they are still technically allowed to have nuclear weapons, Japan has deeply expressed their revulsion towards acquiring nuclear weapons. On February 5, 1968, Prime Minister Eisaku Sato vowed to forever forbid the nation of development, utilization of nuclear power to peaceful uses, and limited research on atomic energy (Nuclear Weapons Program, 4).

Picture 4. “Sato Eisaku” (Encyclopedia Britannica). Picture 4 is an image of former Japan Prime Minister Eisaku Sato. Prime Minister Sato shows Japans revulsion towards acquiring nuclear weapons with his vow to forever forbid Japan to develop, utilize nuclear power to peaceful uses, and limited research on atomic energy.

Objective 3

This objective will focus on maintaining the safety and security of nuclear weapons and the locations of nuclear arsenals throughout the world. The objective will mainly focus on the domestic controls of the United States that uphold the safety and security of its nuclear weapons and international controls that maintain the safety and security of nuclear arsenals around the world.

Domestic Controls of Nuclear Weapons

There are many domestic controls in the United States that are intended to maintain the security of its nuclear weapons. The Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) is in control of the reliability and safety of the country’s nuclear weapons stockpile. One of the major actions that the country has taken to increase weapons security is to reduce the number of operationally deployed strategic nuclear weapons. Under the Moscow Treaty of 2002, the United States agreed to decrease the number of these weapons down to between 1700 and 2200 by 2012 (NNSA, 1). Since 2004, the overall size of the US nuclear weapons stockpile has been reduced by 50%. President George W. Bush stated that it is to be reduced by another 15% by 2012. Another way that the country is ensuring security of its nuclear weapons is by consolidating nuclear material. By 2012, the NNSA plans to consolidate all nuclear material at five sites. Keeping nuclear material at fewer sites improves security for the materials and decreases security costs. A plan for NNSA called Complex Transformation has been set that will close or transfer from weapons activities 600 buildings or structures by 2010. It will also reduce square footage of weapons facilities by 9 million square feet, and reduce the number of workers directly working with weapons by up to 30%. Lastly, the NNSA works to safely maintain the security and reliability of current nuclear warheads as they age, and ensure that they last well beyond their original life span. This is performed in a three-step process of surveillance, assessment, and refurbishment (Office of the Deputy Assistant to the Secretary of Defense, 1). Using new diagnostic tools and analysis methods, the NNSA determines how the effects of aging change the safety and performance of a weapon. Judgments are then made about how to best address the problem of the aging stockpile. Finally, the national laboratories engineer a design to modify the weapon and extend its shelf life, ensuring reliable and safe storage and performance. With domestic controls causing reduction in nuclear weapons, consolidating them into fewer, more secure locations, and maintaining the aging stockpile, the Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration ensures security of the United States’ nuclear weapons (Office of the Deputy Assistant to the Secretary of Defense, 1).

International Controls of Nuclear Weapons

One multilateral treaty that helps maintain the safety and security of nuclear weapons and the locations of those nuclear arsenals is the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). The main purpose of this treaty is to stop testing of nuclear weapons around the world. It also aims to stop countries from encouraging other countries to perform nuclear explosions of any kind. There are recently a total of 180 states that have signed the treaty and 148 countries that have ratified the treaty (CTBTO “Status of Signature and Ratification,” 1). Although there are many states that have signed and ratified the treaty there needs to be 44 select nations to sign and ratify the treaty before it can go into force. These nations are mentioned in Annex 2 to the treaty. Of the 44 nations, ten have not ratified the treaty. Those countries include China, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DRPK), Indonesia, Egypt, India, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Israel, Pakistan and the United States of America (CTBTO “Timor-Leste signs CTBT,” 1).

STATES	SIGNATURE	RATIFICATION
Algeria*	15-OCT-1996	11-JUL-2003
Argentina*	24-SEP-1996	04-DEC-1998
Australia*	24-SEP-1996	09-JUL-1998
Austria*	24-SEP-1996	13-MAR-1998
Bangladesh*	24-OCT-1996	08-MAR-2000
Belgium*	24-SEP-1996	29-JUN-1999
Brazil*	24-SEP-1996	24-JUL-1998
Bulgaria*	24-SEP-1996	29-SEP-1999
Canada*	24-SEP-1996	18-DEC-1998
Chile*	24-SEP-1996	12-JUL-2000
China*	24-SEP-1996
Colombia*	24-SEP-1996	29-JAN-2008
Democratic People`s Republic of Korea*
Democratic Republic of the Congo*	04-OCT-1996	28-SEP-2004
Egypt*	14-OCT-1996
Finland*	24-SEP-1996	15-JAN-1999
France*	24-SEP-1996	06-APR-1998
Germany*	24-SEP-1996	20-AUG-1998
Hungary*	25-SEP-1996	13-JUL-1999
India*
Indonesia*	24-SEP-1996
Iran (Islamic Republic of)*	24-SEP-1996
Israel*	25-SEP-1996
Italy*	24-SEP-1996	01-FEB-1999
Japan*	24-SEP-1996	08-JUL-1997
Mexico*	24-SEP-1996	05-OCT-1999
Netherlands*	24-SEP-1996	23-MAR-1999
Norway*	24-SEP-1996	15-JUL-1999
Pakistan*
Peru*	25-SEP-1996	12-NOV-1997
Poland*	24-SEP-1996	25-MAY-1999
Republic of Korea*	24-SEP-1996	24-SEP-1999
Romania*	24-SEP-1996	05-OCT-1999
Russian Federation*	24-SEP-1996	30-JUN-2000
Slovakia*	30-SEP-1996	03-MAR-1998
South Africa*	24-SEP-1996	30-MAR-1999
Spain*	24-SEP-1996	31-JUL-1998
Sweden*	24-SEP-1996	02-DEC-1998
Switzerland*	24-SEP-1996	01-OCT-1999
Turkey*	24-SEP-1996	16-FEB-2000
Ukraine*	27-SEP-1996	23-FEB-2001
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland*	24-SEP-1996	06-APR-1998
United States of America*	24-SEP-1996
Viet Nam*	24-SEP-1996	10-MAR-2006

Table 1. “Status of Signature and Ratification” (CTBTO). Table 1 shows the nations that are needed to put the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty into force. The table shows the dates the treaty was signed and/or ratified.

This treaty has mandated a system (the International Monitoring System) in which to monitor all nuclear activity around the world. The treaty has also mandated that an International Data Centre is to be in Vienna. The monitoring system is to send all data to the International Data Centre. This is stated in Article IV of the treaty. Article IV of the treaty not only focuses on setting up the monitoring system and the data centre, but it also provides procedures for on-site inspections. The main purpose of the on-site inspections is to determine whether a nuclear explosion has taken place in the site being investigated. Any nation that is a member of the treaty may request an on-site inspection of any other nation that is apart of the treaty. If a country is found to have performed a nuclear explosion without a justifiable reason the executive council of the CTBT organization will take appropriate actions (CTBT “The Treaty,” 1). This treaty is a vital measure for maintaining the safety and security of nuclear weapons and locations of nuclear arsenals. With almost 200 state signatories and nearly 150 ratifying states, this treaty is an important asset to international controls of nuclear weapons.

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